Tolerance is the permitted deviation from a standard. It defines the allowed variation in a workpiece’s dimensions during manufacturing.

Tempering is a heat treatment process that increases the toughness of iron-based alloys. It follows hardening, thereby reducing the excessive hardness by heating at a lower temperature.

Hot-rolling is a metal forming process performed when the metal’s temperature exceeds its recrystallisation point. Metal passes through a pair of rollers to reduce its thickness.

Annealing is a heat treatment to improve ductility and machinability. The material is heated above its critical temperature and then cooled, thereby reducing residual stresses and refining the microstructure.

An alloy is a mixture of a metal with other elements. The composition is selected to achieve specific material properties. Components are melted together and then cooled to form a solid.

The Unified Numbering System (UNS) is widely used in North America to designate alloys. It comprises a leading letter and five digits that indicate the material composition. The prefix S designates stainless steel alloys, C designates copper, brass or bronze alloys, and T designates tool steels. The first three digits often correspond to older three-digit systems, while the last two denote modern variants. For example, a copper alloy originally numbered 377 is designated as C37700 under the UNS. The system is managed jointly by ASTM International and SAE International. A UNS number alone does not fully specify material properties, heat treatment, form or quality.

ASTM International, previously known as the American Society for Testing and Materials until 2001, is an international standards organisation. It voluntarily develops and publishes technical standards for materials, products, systems and services.

Hardness quantifies the resistance of a solid to permanent deformation when a force is applied. Macroscopic hardness generally reflects strong intermolecular bonds. There are several tests including scratch, indentation and rebound measurements.

A tantalum capacitor is a type of electrolytic capacitor used in electronic circuits. It typically consists of a tantalum pellet as the anode, coated with an oxide layer that acts as the dielectric, and is surrounded by a conductive cathode. Tantalum capacitors are the primary application of the element tantalum.

Superconductivity is a phenomenon in which a material exhibits zero electrical resistance and expels magnetic fields below a critical temperature. This behaviour is observed when the material is cooled below its characteristic temperature.

A crucible is a container capable of withstanding very high temperatures. It is used in the production of metals, glass and pigments, and is employed in various laboratory procedures.

Tensile strength measures the force required to stretch a material until it fractures. This value is usually specified as force per unit area and is vital for engineering design.

A flange is a projecting rim that strengthens or secures components. Examples include the flanges on I-beams, T-beams, pipe ends, steam cylinders, camera mounts, railway vehicles and tram wheels.

A refractory metal or alloy has a high melting point and retains stability at elevated temperatures. Typical examples include tungsten, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum and rhenium.

Transition metals are elements in groups 3 to 12 of the periodic table. They possess an incomplete inner electron shell and display multiple oxidation states. They form coloured compounds and stable complexes that are used in various applications.

Yield strength is defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Before reaching the yield point, the material deforms elastically and returns to its original shape when the load is removed. Beyond this point, permanent deformation occurs.

Elongation is the percentage increase in a specimen’s original length when subjected to tensile stress. It is inversely related to hardness, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity.

High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels provide a higher strength-to-weight ratio compared to conventional low-carbon steels at a modest cost increase. The higher strength permits the use of thinner profiles. HSLA steels are available in standard forms such as sheets, strips, plates, structural shapes, bars and custom profiles.