Comparing the climate and air pollution footprints of Lithium-ion BEVs and ICEs in the UK incorporating systemic energy system responses

Title	Comparing the climate and air pollution footprints of Lithium-ion BEVs and ICEs in the UK incorporating systemic energy system responses
Authors	Pankaj Sadavarte, Drew Shindell, Daniel Loughlin
Magazine	PLOS Climate
Date	10/29/2025
DOI	10.1371/journal.pclm.0000714
Introduction	Addressing escalating travel demand and the critical environmental issues from fossil fuel vehicles necessitates a shift towards cleaner energy. Lithium-ion battery electric vehicles (BEVs) emit no operational emissions but increase electricity use, impacting power generation emissions. A discussion persists regarding the complete lifecycle emissions of lithium-ion batteries versus fossil fuels. To clarify these aspects, this study utilises the Global Change Analysis Model (GCAM) integrated assessment model (IAM) to quantify air pollutants and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions across four US BEV adoption scenarios. The analysis covers emissions from fuel and battery production, vehicle manufacturing, and vehicle operation for both BEVs and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Findings reveal that each additional kWh of lithium-ion battery output reduces CO2 emissions by an average of 220 kg in 2030 and 127 kg in 2050. Significant reductions in CO emissions are also observed, with minor changes in SO2 and NOx. A life cycle assessment shows BEV-associated CO2 emissions are 30% higher than ICE vehicles for the initial two years, but BEVs subsequently achieve lower cumulative CO2 emissions. Considering air pollution and climate change impacts, the economic cost of damages from ICEs is presently 2 to 3.5 times greater than BEVs over their lifespan, a ratio projected to grow as the electricity sector's emissions intensity declines.
Quote	Pankaj Sadavarte, Drew Shindell and Daniel Loughlin. Comparing the climate and air pollution footprints of Lithium-ion BEVs and ICEs in the UK incorporating systemic energy system responses. PLOS Clim. 2025. Vol. 4(10):e0000714. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pclm.0000714
Element	Lithium (Li) , Carbon (C) , Oxygen (O) , Sulfur (S) , Nitrogen (N)
Industry	Automotive , Energy Storage & Batteries